Decarbonising cities: mainstreaming low carbon urban development

Machine generated contents note: 1. Addressing Three Wicked Problems

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Climate Change

1.3. Resource Depletion and Environmental Degradation

1.4. Population Growth

1.5. A Manageable Solution: How Cities Address the Challenges

1.6. Aim of the Book

1.7. Structure of Book

References

2. The Global Shift to a Low-Carbon Economy

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Tackling Emissions: The Front-End Versus End-User

2.3. End-User Carbon Abatement

2.4. Using Cities to Lead the Decarbonisation Effort

2.5. Recognising Carbon Reduction in Urban Development

2.6. Conclusion

References

3. Why Cities?

3.1. Introduction

3.2. The Vulnerability of Cities to Climate Change

3.3. Cities' Contribution to Carbon Emissions

3.4. Why Cities Are Fundamental in Tackling Climate Change

3.5. Carbon and the Built Environment An Australian Perspective

3.5.1. Urban Form

3.5.2. Transport

3.5.3. Materials and Construction

3.5.4. The Role of Energy Efficiency

3.5.5. Resource Management

3.5.6. Density and Urban Form

3.6. Conclusion

References

4. Low-Carbon Resource Management in Cities

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Centralised Versus Decentralised Management Approaches

4.2.1. Electricity Generation

4.2.2. Water Management

4.2.3. Waste Management

4.3. Closing Resource Loops

4.4. Green Infrastructure

4.5. Conclusion

References

5. The Precinct The New Scale for Decarbonising

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Defining the Precinct

5.3. Why the Precinct Scale?

5.3.1. Inclusion of Additional Urban Factors

5.3.2. Scale of Communities

5.3.3. Scale of Developers

5.3.4. Access to Local Government

5.3.5. Scale of Emerging Low Carbon Technologies

5.4. Conclusion

References

6. Eco-Precincts

6.1. Introduction

6.2. International Case Studies

6.2.1. BedZED UK

6.2.2. Vauban, Freiburg Germany

6.2.3. B001, Western Harbour, Malmo Sweden

6.2.4. Hammarby Sjostad, Stockholm Sweden

6.2.5. Masdar United Arab Emirates

6.2.6. Dongtan China

6.3. Australian Case Studies

6.3.1. City of Sydney NSW

6.3.2. City of Fremantle Western Australia

6.3.3. North Port Quay Western Australia

6.4. Comparing Developments

6.4.1. Variations in Claims

6.4.2. Emissions Sources Included in Claims

6.4.3. Inconsistent Reporting

6.4.4. Problems with Scaling up Low-Carbon Developments

6.4.5. Direction Needed

6.5. Conclusion

References

7. The Rise of Carbon Neutrality

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Defining Carbon Neutrality

7.3. Benefits of Carbon Neutrality

7.4. Carbon Neutrality: Carbonwash or the Real Deal?

7.5. Increasing the Credibility of Carbon Claims

7.6. Carbon-neutral Cities and Urban Development

7.6.1. Precinct-Scale Carbon Claims

7.7. The Need for a Sector-Specific Framework

7.7.1. Accounting for Carbon in Urban Development

7.8. Defining the Carbon Footprint

7.9. The Offset Polemic

7.9.1. The Perceived Fundamental Flaw

7.9.2. The Voluntary Carbon Market Integrity of Offsets

7.10. Conclusion

References

8. Counting Carbon in Cities

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Determining the GHG Contribution of Cities

8.3. Frameworks and Initiatives for Calculating City-based Emissions

8.3.1. ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability

8.3.2. Global Protocol for Community-scale GHG Emissions

8.4. Programmes Facilitating Emission Analysis and Reporting

8.4.1. C40 Cities and the Clinton Climate Initiative

8.4.2. CDP Cities

8.5. Discourse on City GHG Methodologies and Attribution

8.6. Conclusion

References

9. Rating Carbon in Urban Development

9.1. Precinct-Scale Accounting Schemes

9.2. International Tools

9.2.1. BREEAM Communities

9.2.2. LEED Neighbourhood Development

9.2.3. CASBEE Urban Development

9.2.4. One Planet Communities

9.3. Australian Tools

9.3.1. Green Star Communities

9.3.2. EnviroDevelopment

9.3.3. PRECINX

9.3.4. eTool

9.4. Issues Around Precinct-Scale Tools

9.4.1. Measurement Methods

9.4.2. Point-Based Systems and Use of Weightings

9.4.3. Complexity

9.4.4. Phase of Adoption of the Tool

9.4.5. Performance and Evaluation

9.4.6. Functionality of Tools: Decision-Making Versus Assessment and Rating

9.5. The Need for a Sustainability Framework

9.6. Conclusion

References

10. Certifying for Carbon Neutrality

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Avoiding False and Misleading Claims

10.3. What Is Certification and Who Conducts It?

10.4. Certification Schemes

10.4.1. CarboNZero

10.4.2. Certified Carbon Neutral Global Standard The CarbonNeutral® Company

10.4.3. PAS 2060:2010 Specification for the Demonstration of Carbon Neutrality

10.4.4. Carbon Neutral

10.4.5. Climate Friendly

10.4.6. NoCO2 The Carbon Reduction Institute

10.4.7. Carbon Neutral ICLEI

10.4.8. NCOS Carbon Neutral Program Low Carbon Australia

10.5. Analysis of Existing Schemes

10.5.1. Vested Interests

10.5.2. Government Endorsement

10.5.3. A Global Leader

10.6. Conclusion

References

11. Spotlight: The Australian Government Carbon Neutral Standard

11.1. Introduction

11.2. The National Carbon Offset Standard

11.2.1. Eligible Offsets Under the NCOS

11.3. NCOS Carbon Neutral Program and Certification Process

11.3.1. The Greenhouse Gas Inventory/Carbon Footprint

11.3.2. The Emissions Management Plan

11.3.3. The Public Disclosure Summary

11.3.4. Annual Report

11.4. Issues for Certifying Precinct-Level Urban Development Under NCOS

11.4.1. Generic Guidelines

11.4.2. Catering for Different Types of Development

11.4.3. Dealing with Multiple Stakeholders

11.4.4. Issues with Ongoing Certification

11.4.5. Offsets

11.4.6. Australia's Direct Action Policy and its Effect on Offsets

11.4.7. Behaviour Change

11.4.8. Transaction Costs

11.5. Conclusion

References

12. A New Framework and Core Elements

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Proposed GHG Framework for Precinct-Scale Urban Development

12.2.1. Site Preparation and Construction Process

12.2.2. Embodied Carbon in Materials

12.2.3. Energy Production and Management

12.2.4. Water Management

12.2.5. Waste Management

12.2.6. Travel

12.2.7. Phases of Precinct-Scale Emissions

12.3. Core Elements for Low-Carbon/Carbon Neutral Certification Within the Built Environment

12.3.1. A Carbon Accounting Framework for Urban Development

12.3.2. Online Modelling Tools

12.3.3. Governance Ongoing Management of Low-Carbon Precincts

12.3.4. Engagement and Behaviour Change Programs for Operational GHG

12.3.5. Regulations to Assist Certification

12.4. Conclusion

References

13. Making It Work

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Benefits of Low-Carbon Development

13.3. Barriers to Uptake of Low-Carbon Development

13.3.1. Information Barriers

13.3.2. High Capital Costs

13.3.3. Split Incentives

13.3.4. Longer Approvals Process

13.3.5. First-Mover Disadvantage

13.3.6. Policy and Pricing Uncertainty

13.3.7. Lock-In

13.3.8. Credibility of Carbon Claims

13.3.9. Multiple Stakeholders

13.3.10. Regulatory Issues for Utilities

13.4. Opportunities to Overcome Barriers

13.4.1. Government Leadership and Facilitation

13.4.2. Information Campaigns

13.4.3. Knowledge Sharing Both Success and Failure

13.4.4. Creating Baselines for Sector

13.4.5. Energy Market Reform

13.4.6. Alternative Funding Models to Assist Low-Carbon Urban Development

13.4.7. Environmental Upgrade Agreements

13.4.8. ESCo's

13.4.9. Business Improvement Districts for Precinct Development

13.5. Mechanisms for Incentivising Precinct-Scale Carbon Reduction

13.5.1. Removal of Stamp Duty

13.5.2. Land Tax Exemptions

13.5.3. Labelling and Certification Schemes

13.5.4. Fast-Track Approval Process

13.5.5. Energy Efficiency Standards and Mandatory Disclosure

13.5.6. Green Mortgages

13.5.7. Renewable Energy Certificates

13.5.8. Energy Certificate Schemes

13.5.9. Carbon Trading for the Built Environment

13.6. Conclusion

References

14. Final Thoughts

14.1. Introduction

14.2. The Carbon Reduction Potential of Urban Development

14.3. Certifying Low-Carbon Urban Development

14.3.1. Core Elements of Carbon Certification for Urban Development

14.4. Barriers and Opportunities Increasing Uptake of Low-Carbon Urban Development

14.5. Next

References.